Annotated bibliographies:
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources

Return to the Midde East timeline.

Country	Year		Events/Assessments/Quotes/Comments
Arabia	300	1	Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Arabia". The three Medina tribes were the Banu Kainuka (aka Qaynuqa), the Banu al-Nadhir, and the Banu Ḳuraiza (aka Qurayza). Other cities with Jews included Taima, Fadak, Khaibar, Wadi al-Kura. Description of the main (Medina) tribes prior to the conquest provided in Nicolle's Rome's Enemies 5 : "Three Jewish tribes of the northern Hijaz were also powerful in the early 7th century -- the Qaynuqa, Quraiza, and Nadhir. The first alone had 700 warriors, half of them fully mailed ... the merchant families, however rich, remained well armed and warlike, defending their rich caravans in the dangerous desert and competing with rivals." (page 16). "The Jewish tribes of the northern Hijaz had notably well-armed forces, surrendering 1,840 swords, 350 armors, 1,000 spears and 1,500 shields but only 50 helmets when defeated by the first Muslim armies." (page 18).
		2	Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Arabia", using Arab sources.
	375	1	Blady, p.9 and article by Nahmoud, Nehama in the Jan 1, 1998 Jewish World Review.
	450	1	Grant, p. 288.
	500	1	Beinart, p. 18.
		2	Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Samuel ibn 'Adiya". Famous for his poetry and his unswerving loyalty/honor: He would not hand over to a besieging army items a prince had given to him for safekeeping, not even to save his son's life.
	625	1	Beinart, p. 19 plus sources below. - Mohammed beheaded all of the Qurayza men & teenage boys *after* they surrendered. This was in 627. Stillman, p. 141 (quoting Ibn Hasham, 810): "When they surrendered, the Apostle of Allah … had them imprisoned in Media … Then the Apostle went to the Market of Medina, which is its market to this day, and had trenches dug. After that, he sent for them and had them decapitated into those trenches as they were brought out in groups. … In all, they were about 600 or 700, although some say there were as many as 800 or 900." - The Qurayza were defeated after being betrayed by their Arab allies: Birnbaum, "620". - "Muhammed sent emissaries to Khaybar inviting the war chief of the Nadir … to come to Medina to parley. Usayr set off with thirty companionsand a Muslim escort. Suspecting no foul play, the Jews went unarmed. On the way, the Muslims turned upon the defenseless delegation, killing all but one." : Marhab, a Khaybar warrior, marched out of one of their fortresses during Mohammed's attack (628) and demanded a single combat. Ibn Hasham's account implies that his challenge was in verse. The combat was with sword and shield. Unfortunately, Marhab lost. Per Stillman, pp. 146-147 (citing Ibn Hasham, 810). - The Pact of Omar (aka Umar) was finalized in the 800s, and lets non-Muslims live under Muslim protection in return for a subservient position. The dhimmis ' promises include "We will receive any Muslim traveller into our houses and give him food and lodging for three nights ... we wil not ride on saddles, or gird on swords, or or take to ourselves arms or wear them." Marcus, pp. 14-16; his translation online at the Internet History Sourcebook .
	650	1	Many sources.
		2	Beinart, p. 20.
		3	Stillman, pp. xxiii, 271. A set of instructions on supervising dhimmis states: "A tradition has come down from the Prophet … in which he said: 'I shall surely expel the Jews and Christians from the Arabian Penninsula so that I shall leave there only Muslims.' He also said 'The Jews and Christians may not live as fellow inhabitants in your capitals.' " (Stillman, p. 271).
	1150	1	Benjamin of Tudela, Adler's translation, pp. 69-72. Note : Arab sources disagree with this claim, and the claimed populations of 150,000 actively attacking their neighbors is inconsistent with basic logistics as well as history. Also, Benjamin did not personally travel here and observe this, saying it was 18 days' travel through the uninhabited desert to reach this land. Khaybar is indeed deep in the desert on a volcanic highland. Adler's footnotes describe scholars' attempts to resolve this by visiting, noting that Khaybars population was then small and very, very hostile to outsiders. One Baghdad Jew who tired to visit was murdered, and the Englishman describing that incident urged that no further attempts be made. Personally, I suspect that a remnant snuck back and lived there quietly in enforced isolation so as not to attract fatal attention, and Benjamin was being told memories of pre-Islamic conditions.
Byzantium/ Turkey, Greece	300	1	Synagogue of Sardes: Grant, p. 274 & many websites.
		2	http://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/sardis-synagogue
	375	1	Cohen, p. 20. Typical excerpt from one such speech: "[The synagogue] is not simply a gathering place for thieves and hucksters, but also of demons ... Instead of exchanging greetings with them and addressing one word to them, ought one not rather avoid them as a pestilence and disease spread throughout the whole world?"
		2	Marcus, pp. 120-123.
	425	1	Grant, p. 287, Marcus, pp.5-6, and Cohen pp. 32-34. Excerpts quoted on the Internet History Sourcebook ("Jews and the Later Roman Law 315-531").
	475	1	Grant, p. 287.
	525	1	Marcus p. 6-7 and Birnbaum, "520". Excerpts quoted on the Internet History Sourcebook ("Jews and the Later Roman Law 315-531").
	600	1	Graetz, vol. III p. 18.
	625	1	Wilcox, p. 41.
		2	Baer, p. 19.
		3	Grant, p. 288.
		4	Shterenshis, 16.
	700	1	Brook, p. 135.
		2	Brook, pp. 135-136. Theophanes wrote that the reason was that Justinian had been deposed in 695 and had taken refuge in the Crimea. The reigning Byzantine emperor asked the Khazars to kill Justinian, who was warned by his wife and fled. The war was revenge against the Khazars after Justinian regained his throne in 705.
		3	Beinart, p. 25 & Brook, p. 248.
	775	1	Brook, p. 137.
		2	Sergius the Sylite of Gusit (a.k.a. Sargis Istunaya de-Gusit). According to the online Encyclopedia of Syriac Literature (http://www.roger-pearse.com), Sergius talks about Syrian Christians who "gave oil and unleavened bread to the synagogue" and say "If Christianity is good, behold, I am baptized as a Christian. But if Judaism is also, behold, I will associate partly with Judaism that I might hold on to the Sabbath." Sergius has them losing the debate.
	800	1	Adler, p. 2 (Obaidallah ibn Khordadhbeh, c. 817)
	850	1	Beinart, p. 25, Brook p. 90.
		2	Brook, pp. 137-138.
	900	1	Beinart, p. 25.
	925	1	Brook, p.90.
		2	Brook, pp. 90-91.
	1175	1	Adler p. 23-24 in Benjamin of Tudela's original text.
		2	Adler, p. 91 (Rabbi Petachia of Ratisbon, 1187), also Benisch translation p. 67.
	1200	1	Beinart, p. 71.
	1300	1	1305 memo from Fulk of Villaret, master of the Hospitallers. From Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274-1580 , edited and translated by Norman Housley (London, 1996). Translated text is available online at http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/housley1.htm
	1425	1	Baron, A Social and Religious History , vol XVIII, p. 21. The circular by this German-born, French-descended rabbi went out to the Jews of Swabia, the Rhineland, Styria, Moravia, and Hungary, saying in part: "I proclaim to you that Turkey is a land wherein nothing is lacking … Here every man may dwell at peace under his own vine and fig-tree … Arise! and leave your accursed land for ever!"
	1450	1	Beinart, pp. 70-71. Andrew G. Bostom, in his July 27, 2007 article "Under Turkish Rule" in FrontPageMagazine.com , argues that the Turkish treatment of Jews means this Timeline cell should have a yellow rating, not cyan. He cites multiple articles by Joseph Hacker. Hacker says that the Turks' forcible resettlement of the Jews -- called the Surgun System -- was not just a one-time movement but a limitation on movement/employment and method of imposing double taxation upon the families of these Jews for centuries. Furthermore, the moved Jews were forced to abandon their old property, which was taken over by the Turkish army. These and the other claims merit further investigation and evaluation, especially since he cites specific medieval people and sources. But it certainly would explain why a Jew like Reubeni would try to ally with the Christians against the Turks.
	1475	1	Adler, p. 201-2 (Meshullam ben R. Menahem, 1481): "It is surprising that they are not stoned by the Greek Gentiles, who are very anti-Jewish … To show you their hostility I know that it is forbidden for a Jew who buys anything to touch the goods or fruit of the vendor, for if his hand touched the goods he would be forced against his will to buy and give him anything that he asked."
		2	Baron, A Social and Religious History , vol XVIII, pp. 36-37, 43.
			Off-topic and off-chart but interesting comment by Obadiah da Bertinoro, 1490: "Nowhere are there more beautiful Jewesses than in Rhodes." (Adler, p. 217)
	1525	1	Krtitzler, p. 68.
		2	Birnbaum, "1510".
		3	Roth, The Duke of Naxos , pp. xi-xii. Note : The underground railroad was first for Portugese Jews, then also for Italian Jews as their conditions deteriorated. Unfortunately, only a limited number of Jews were able to make it -- Roth cites extensive interception of ships by the Knights of Malta (as well as other problems).
	1550	1	Kritzler, pp. 72, reprinting a quote cited in Jane S. Gerber, Jewish Society in Fez : "For they taught our enemies the villainies of war such as how to make harquebusiers, gunpowder, cannonballs, brass ordnance, and firelocks."
		2	Marcus, pp. 474-75 and Roth, The Duke of Naxos , pp. 75-96, 223. Marcus, p. 474-475, from the diary of Hans Dernschwam, German employee of the Fugger international business family: "He is said to have been named Zuan Mykas [Juan Miguez] ... [Juan Miguez was Joseph Nasi, later Duke of Naxos] ... came to Constantinople in 1554 ... The above mentioned Portugese ... must have practiced jousting and tilting. He brought in all sorts of equipment such as armor, helmets, guns, long and short lances, also battle axes and large and small muskets. And even in Galata in his garden ... his servants tilt and joust." Note: the bracketed texts are Marcus' comments.
		3	Baron, A Social and Religious History , vol XVIII, p. 54.
	1575	1	Roth p. 198.
Egypt	375	1	The best discussion I've found so far on this often-repeated claim is Bede's Library at http://www.bede.org.uk/library.htm It critiques each of the the original period source materials cited by Gibbon, who made this claim in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire .
	400	1	Birnbaum, "410". An account of this event, along with a description of the underlying conflict between the bishop and the city governor, and the murder of the noted female philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria by a Christian mob, was written shortly after these events (Socrates Scholasticus' Historica Ecclesiastica ). A conflicting and less complete account was written around 650 (almost 2 1/2 centuries after the event) by Bishop John of Nikiu. The Bishop's account excuses the Christian mob.
	500	1	Finkelshteyn, "Yemen (Himayar)".
	750	1	Stillman, p. 162.
	800	1	Adler, p. 2 (Obaidallah ibn Khordadhbeh, c. 817)
	850	1	Birnbaum, "870".
	900		Spreadsheet cell merged with the Holy Land's, see that listing for entry.
	950		Spreadsheet cell merged with the Holy Land's, see that listing for entry.
	1000		Spreadsheet cell merged with the Holy Land's, see that listing for entry.
	1050	1	Stillman, p. 44.
		2	Stillman, pp. 47, 52-53.
	1100	1	Stillman, p. 47+ and many other sources.
	1150	1	Cohen, p. xvi.
		2	Adler p. 61-62 (Benjamin of Tudela, 1173).
	1200	1	Adler p. 100-101 (The Cairo Geniza)
	1250	1	Stillman, pp. 67-69.
	1275	1	Schein, p. 37.
	1300	1	Stillman, p. 69.
	1350	1	Stillman, p. 273 (Al-Malik Al-Salih's Decree against the dhimmis, 1354).
	1425	1	Stillman, p. 71.
	1475	1	Adler p. 163 (Meshullam ben R. Menahem, 1481). Some of the restrictions Meshullam lists: "No Jew or Gentile may point with his second finger or the Moslem might cut it off or kill him." (Adler, p. 173) [Anyone wanting to visit and does not] "know Arabic must dress like a Turk in order that he may not be mistaken for a Jew or a Frank, else even a Jubilee would not set him free from paying much money to the coffre , that is, taxes." (Adler, p. 181) Confirmation of the above by another traveller: (Obadiah da Bertinoro, 1490): "[In Cairo] The custom of the Jews is always to represent themselves as poor in the country of the Arabs; they go about as beggars, humbling themselves before the Arabs." (Adler, p.228)
	1500	1	Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Africa".
		2	Marcus, pp. 70-74 and Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Ahmed Pasha". He attacked the Jews because a Jewish coinmaker had warned the Turkish Sultan about Ahmed's plans.
Ethiopia			Important notes re Ethiopia: My research into Ethiopian Jewish history has been particularly difficult, given the Ethiopian Jewish community's isolation from the rest of the world (indeed Ethiopia as a whole was isolated for much of the Middle Ages due to the Arabs' conquest of the coast), the limited surviving hard documentation, and the extensive politically and religiously motivated re-writing of this history as far back as the Kebra Nagast . Thus while it is very easy to find strongly-held opinions and claims it has been hard to draw firm conclusions, so my color codes for this country and the dating of certain events have required many gut-level judgement calls of which conflicting source to believe. Therefore readers should consider this column carved in Jell-o, not granite, and I would greatly appreciate pointers to solid, trustworthy sources. The term "Falasha", used by their foes to describe Ethiopian Jews, is the equivalent of the term "wetback" in its economic and social implications. It is an insult.
	300	1	Adler, pp. 9, 19 (Eldad the Danite's letter to the Jews of Spain, c. 880). Note that Shishak, ally of Jeroboam, had Ethiopian troops (II Chronicles 12:2-3). Regardless of the accuracy of this claim, it seems to me that establishment of the Jewish community pre-300 CE is highly likely.
		2	Blady, pp. 347 and 352.
	325	1	Blady, p. 348.
		2	Finkelshteyn, "Yemen (Himayar)".
	500	1	Nicolle, Rome's Enemies 5, pages 5 & 15, and Finkelshteyn, "Yemen (Himayar)". Also mentioned in Procopius, Book I, XX 2-8, who said it was because Jews and old-faith Hellenes were oppressing the Christians.
	525	1	Kebra Nagast, Budge translation. Commands to destroy the Jewish kingdom are on pages 196-199. My thoughts: - This is very convenient timing with Najran campaign, so I suspect this was a propoganda piece from the time of the war. - The Nagast does not mention any other independent Jewish kingdoms except in Armenia. This does not bode well for the status of Jews in Ethiopia itself at the time. - Blady (p. 348) points out that some scholars date the writing of the Kebra Nagast to late 1200s or so, as a propoganda piece justifying the Solomonic line's rule. Whether or not that's the date of the book's final version, for me the bottom line is that the Nagast claims there is a strong Jewish kingdom in Armenia that Rome must destroy. This makes no sense in the 1200s/1300s, but does in the 500s.
	650	1	Blady, pp. 350 and 355-356.
	875	1	Adler, pp. 8-11, 15 & Finkelshteyn (both citing Eldad the Danite's letter to the Jews of Spain, c. 880): "and unto this very day, they fight with the children of the kingdoms of Ethiopia … and these tribes, being Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asher, dwell in the ancient Havilah, where gold is ..." (Adler, p. 8) Nicolle, Rome's Enemies 5 , p. 12, also reports gold mining in period in this area, and according to the East Africa Metals Inc. website "Gold is Ethiopia's main mineral export and has been mined since ancient times, primarily as alluvial or free gold."
		2	Adler, p.16 (Eldad the Danite's letter to the Jews of Spain, c. 880). "They go to fight on their horses and keep on horseback all the week, but on the eve of the Sabbath they alight wherever they may be and their horses remain in their armor …" (Adler, p.16) Nicolle, Rome's Enemies 5 , p. 12 says "The only piece of medieval African horse-armor yet known was recently found in Soba." Soba is in the Sudan, near Ethiopia.
	900	1	Many sources, incl. Jewish Encyclopedia Online ("Falashas") and Blady, p. 357. She is consistently described as quite beautiful. The 914 date is from Budge's intro to his translation of the Kebra Nagast, p. xxiv.
	950	1	Budge, p. xxiv.
	1150	1	Benjamin of Tudela, pp. 95-96, Marcus Adler translation. In his footnotes #175 and 176 to these points, Marcus Adler points out that "Aden" at the time referred to "Middle India", which included both modern Aden and Abyssinia (I think it's logical, since Ethiopia often owned it). Adler points to further references re this. Aswan is near Egypt's southern border.
	1250	1	Budge translation of Kebra Nagast, p. xxiv and Blady, p. 357.
	1275	1	Marco Polo, Chapter XXXV "Treating Of The Great Province Of Abash Which Is Middle India". Project Gutenburg e-books, Henry Yule translation. It is clear in context that Polo is talking about Ethiopia, not what we call India today. Also, while Marco Polo does not mention a Jewish kingdom in his list of kingdoms, he left many other things out as well that we'd consider important (e.g. the Great Wall of China).
		2	Jewish Virtual Library, "Josippon".
	1300	1	Nicolle, Medieval Warfare Source Book, vol. II, p. 213. From the Jewish Encyclopedia Online , "Falashas": "Under the rule of Amda-Seyon I. (1314-44) Jews dwelt in Semien, Wogara, Salamt, and Sagade."
	1400	1	Blady, p. 358.
	1425	1	Adler, p. 153 (Elijah of Ferrara, 1434), who said: "Meseems I have already imparted to you heretofore what a young Jew has told me concerning those men of his own country and religion, who are their own masters, and owe no dependence to anyone. These (Falashas) dwell among a great nation called Habesh (Abyssinia), they make a show of Christianity, wearing on their faces chain and filament; they are constantly at war with them and only now and again with other Jews. These Hebrews have a language of their own. It is neither Hebrew nor Ishmaelite. They posess the Law and a traditional commentary upon it. They have neither our Talmud nor our codes … They are about three months' distant from us, and the river Gozan (Nile) flows through their regions."
	1450	1	Blady, p. 358-359.
	1475	1	Adler (Obadiah da Bertinoro, 1490). Key excerpts: "I hear from one who has been informed ... that there are high mountains and valleys there which can be traversed in a ten days' journey, and which are certainly inhabited by descendants of Israel. They have five princes or kings, and have carried on great wars against the Johannites (Abyssinians) for more than a century, but, unfortunately, the Johannites prevailed and Ephraim was beaten. The Johannites penetrated into their country and laid it waste, and the remembrance of Israel had almost died away in those places, for an edict was issued against those who remained prohibiting the exercise of their religious duties … They have again become numerous, and though they still pay tribute to the Johannites they are not entirely subject to them. Four years ago, it is said, they again made war with their neighbors, when they plundered their enemies and took many prisoners. The enemy, on the other hand, took some of them prisoners, and sold them as slaves; a few of these were brought to Cairo and redeemed by the Jews there. I saw two of them in Cairo; they were black but not so black as the negroes." (Adler p. 238-239) "The Jews of Aden also say that the Israelites dwelling on the borders of their territory, of whom I wrote in my first letter, are now at war with the people of Prester John (the Abyssinian), and that some of them have been taken prisoners and brought to Cairo. I have seen some of these with my own eyes … The Christians who come from the territory of the Johannites relate that the Jews there, who are at war with the people of Prester John, have suffered great defeats, and we are very anxious to know if these accounts are really true." (Adler, p. 247)
	1500	1	Finkelshteyn email to the sca-judaica mailing list, 10/31/2005: "In the 70ies, reb Ovadia Yoseph wrote a Teshuvah regarding the Halakhic status of Ethipian refugees building on Teshuvas written in the 15th-16th century when Jews in Egypt bought slaves who turned out to be Ethiopian Jewish captives (they amount to "mazal tov on performing the wonderful mizvah of rescuing a Jew from captivity").
	1525	1	Adler, p. 292-293 (David Reubeni, 1525). Note that Reubeni's claims were often not reliable, to put it mildly.
	1575	1	Blady p. 359.
			More research on this subject is needed, especially to find reliable source documents.
Holy Land	300	1	Texidor, pp. 216-218. Zenobia ruled Roman Syria, famous for being a warrior-queen who was also quite learned and hosted literary salons -- and stunningly beautiful to boot. Church writers from the 4th century onwards called her Jewish and her spiritual advisor Paul of Samosata a Judaiser. For example Athanasius of Alexandria, who wrote one century after her death (and who interestingly saw Paul as the forerunner of Arianism) said "Zenobia was a Jewess and a supporter of Paul of Samosata." In 391 John Chrysostom, a native of Antioch, alluded to her Judaism in a homily on the Gospel of St. John. However, Zeonobia's ancestry was not Jewish. Therefore she was probably either a convert or just strongly interested in Judaism.
	350	1	Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Patricus". The revolt's leader was called "Patricus" in Greek sources and "Natrona" in Jewish sources. The Cambridge History of Judaism , Volume 4, 2006, pp. 410 - 413, uses this as an example of not only the difficulty of forming conclusions about historical events with limited evidence and also raises the possibility that many Jews did not participate. Either way, the effect of the revolt was minimal.
		2	Grant, p. 286-287 and Marcus pp. 9-13 (excerpts from the latter on the Internet History Sourcebook , "Julian and the Jews"). It is not known whether the Sassanians or a Christian in the Roman army threw the javelin that killed Julian.
	425	1	Zuckerman, p. 3 and Grant, p. 287.
	450	1	Haaretz.com, Dec. 20 2007, "Rethinking Byzantine-era Judaism"
	525	1	Procopius, p. 411.
		2	Birnbaum, "540".
	550	1	John Malalas, Chronography, cited by The Cambridge Companion, p. 410.
	600	1	Roth, p. 103 and Birnbaum, "610". Roth calls him a "military figure".
	625	1	Beinart, p. 18 and Grant, p. 288. Graetz, vol. III p.20 says that Jewish forces liberated other cities too and destroyed churches, but when a 20,000-strong Jewish army marched against Tyre the Christians (who had been warned) took the city's Jews prisoner, killing 100 of them and throwing their heads over the wall for each church in the surround destroyed. The Jewish troops withdrew. Graetz (pp. 21-23) also says that the Persians in fact did not give Jerusalem to the Jews or support Jewish independence, and that it was as a result of this disagreement the Persian general banished many Jews to Persia. In 627 Heraclius signed an agreement with the disappointed Jews not to punish them (presumably in return for their neutrality). However after he took Jerusalem the Christian Patriarch and some monks convinced him to persecute/massacre Jews anyway since they claimed that killing Jews was an offering to God and they would take upon themselves any sin resulting from his violating a sworn agreement.
		2	Stillman, p. 153, quoting al-Baladhuri's Futuh al-Buldan (892).
		3	Stillman, pp. 154-155.
	675	1	Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Abd-al-Malik".
	700	1	Birnbaum, "710" and Jewish Encyclopedia Online, "Babylonia".
	750	1	Zuckerman, p. 38.
	900	1	Stillman, p. 34.
		2	Stillman, p. 43.
	950	1	Stillman, p. 43.
		2	Beinart, p. 32.
	1000	1	Beinart, p. 32. Cohen, pp. 164-165, says Hakim's reign ended in 1021, that "even medieval scholars questioned al-Hakim's sanity", and that the attacks were against Christians as well (e.g. destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, helping justify the later First Crusade).
		2	Stillman, pp. 205-206.
	1025	1	Stillman, p. 50.
	1050	1	Stillman, p. 49.
	1075	1	Wolkoff, pp. 9 & 22.
	1100	1	Birnbaum, "1100"
	1150	1	M. Adler (Benjamin of Tudela), p. 49. "The city of Tarmod is surrounded by walls; it is in the desert far away from inhabited places ... And in Tarmod there are about 2,000 Jews. They are valiant in war and they fight with the Christians and with the Arabs ... and they help their neighbors the Ishmaelites." According to 2 Chronicles 8:4, Solomon "built Tadmor in the wilderness, and all the store-cities, which he built in Hamath".
	1175	1	Rabbi Petachia of Ratisbon, 1187, Benisch's translation p. 61.
		2	Wolkoff, p. 11 and Schein, p. 33.
		3	Nicolle, Medieval Warfare Source Book vol II , p. 257.
	1200	1	Birnbaum, "1210" and Wolkoff, p.11.
		2	Stillman, pp. 198-199 (quoting Geniza document).
	1250	1	Schein, p. 33.
		2	Schein, p. 36.
	1325	1	Adler, p. 131-133 (Isaac ben Joseph ibn Chelo, 1334) "The Jewish community in Jerusalem, God be gracious to her! is quite numerous. It is composed of fathers of families from all parts of the world, principally from France. The leading men of the community, as well as the principal rabbis, come from the latter kingdom … They live there in happiness and tranquility, each according to his condition and fortune, for the royal authority is just and great."
	1350	1	Beinart, p. 69.
	1425	1	Adler, p. 153 (Elijah of Ferrara, 1434)
		2	Wolkoff, p. 15.
	1475	1	From Mushullam ben R. Menachem, 1481: "When I saw [Jerusalem's] ruins rent my garments … [there are] two hundred and fifty Jewish householders." (Adler, p.188)
		2	From Obadiah da Bertinoro, 1490: "The Jewish Nagid who has his residence in Cairo is appointed over all the Jews who are under the dominion of the King of Egypt … The present prince lived formerly for a long time in Jerusalem, but was forced to leave it on account of the Elders … When I came to Cairo he … tried to dissuade me altogether from going to Jerusalem [saying that] all scholars and rabbis formerly in Jerusalem left the city in haste in order to preserve their lives from the oppressions of the Elders. The Jews who were in Jerusalem, about three hundred families, disappeared by degrees on account of the great taxes and burdens laid upon them by the Elders, so that the poor only remained, and women." (Adler, p. 229) "Jerusalem is for the most part desolate and in ruins … As for Jews, about seventy families of the poorest class have remained … Among the Jewish population there are many aged, forsaken widows from Germany, Spain, Portugal, and other countries, so that there are seven women to one man. The land is now quieter and happier than before; for the Elders have repented of the evil they had done, when they saw that only the poorer portion of its inhabitants remained; they are therefore very friendly to every newcomer … The Jews are not persecuted by the Arabs in these parts … and if they see many Jews together they are not annoyed by it." (Adler, p. 234-235)
	1500	1	Beinart, p. 88 and Birnbaum, "1510".
		2	Roth, pp. 99-100.
		3	Stillman, pp. 89-90.
	1550	1	Birnbaum, "1550".
		2	Marcus pp. 363-365; Roth, Duke of Naxos, pp. 105-135. Roth, Duke of Naxos , p. 223, says he was granted Tiberias ca. 1561, others say 1570. Need to resolve time difference.
		3	Roth, Duke of Naxos , pp. 114-118 w/quote of the medieval Emek ha-Bakha pp. 136-137. Roth distinguishes this focus from the more charity- and scholarly-oriented contributions of Joseph's mother-in-law Gracia -- especially after 1569 when Joseph continued the investment in Tiberias and the "underground railroad" after her death but not the contributions to the Safed scholars (Roth pp. 120-121).
Yemen, other Arabian coast	300	1	Blady, pp. 3-4. Also Benjamin of Tudela (Adler, p. 62) refers to "Sheba, which is El-Yemen" and on p.55 to "Mecca which is in the land of El-Yemen." Contrary to Blady's quote I think this does not definitively prove that the Queen's country was in Ethiopia, only that her gifts were from there (there was much trade between the two).
		2	Blady, p. 8.
	375	1	Finkelshteyn, "Yemen (Himayar)" and article by Nahmoud, Nehama in the Jan 1, 1998 Jewish World Review .
		2	Blady, p. 9.
	500	1	Blady, p. 9.
		2	Blady, p. 9 and Beinart, p. 17.
		3	Ibid. Nicolle in his Medieval Warfare Source Book vol. II , p.48, says that the Byzantines provided the ships that transported the Ethiopian army. He also provides a mini-bio on p. 215, which quotes one of Nuwas' inscriptions which has been found.
	550	1	Finkelshteyn, "Yemen (Himayar)".
		2	Nicolle, Medieval Warfare Source Book Volume II, pp. 47-48.
		3	Finkelshteyn, "Yemen (Himayar)".
	600	1	Beinart, p. 18.
	625	1	Blady, p. 4.
		2	Blady, p. 10.
		3	Beinart, p. 20.
	800	1	Adler, p. 2 (Obaidallah ibn Khordadhbeh, c. 817)
	875	1	Adler, p. 8 (Eldad the Danite's letter to the Jews of Spain, c. 880). "And the tribe of Ephraim and half tribe of Manasseh are there in the mountains over against the city of Mecca, the stumbling block of the Ishmaelites. They are strong of body and of iron heart. They are horse-men and take the road and have no pity on their enemies, and their only livelihood comes of spoil. They are mighty men of war."
		2	Blady, pp. 4, 9-12. One example of their rules: if the father of a Jewish child under 13 died, the child was forcibly taken from the Jewish community and brought up in a mosque (pp. 11-12).
	900	1	Marcus, pp. 407-410. Those pages translate & excerpt Buzburg ibn Shahriyar of Ramhurmuz's 953 Adjaib al-Hind , but include events earlier that century.
	1150	1	Cohen, pp. xvi-xvii. The full translated text of Maimonides' epistle to the Jews of Yemen is provided in Stillman, pp. 233-246.
		2	Adler, p. 49 (Benjamin of Tudela, 1173).
		3	Adler, p. 60 (Benjamin of Tudela, 1173). "The country is mountainous. There are many Israelites there, and they are not under the yoke of the Gentiles, but posess cities and castles on the summits of the mountains … The Jews take spoil and booty and retreat to the mountains, and no man can prevail against them." Note : Since Benjamin of Tudela says that the mountain Jews of "Middle India, which is Aden" is warring with "Maatum, also called Nubia", this raises the possibility that Benjamin is actually describing the situation in Ethiopia, not what we call Aden today. However, given the other mentions of Jewish warriors (e.g. Elijah of Ferrara's) here, I am for now assuming he indeed means Aden/Yemen.
		4	Adler, p. 57-58 (Benjamin of Tudela, 1173).
	1175	4	Margariti, p. 124.
	1200	1	Stillman, p.. 249-50 (Geniza letter), plus Margariti, p. 124 providing background for the letter.
		2	Adler p. 100-101 (The Cairo Geniza, 12??)
	1425	1	Adler, p. 154 (Elijah of Ferrara, 1434), who said: "The tribe of Ephraim live to the south of Babylon. They are a fighting race, warriors who live on the booty they capture, and their language is Hebrew." To have such a tribe in the near-south of Babylon (i.e. still in Mesopotamia) is inconsistent with other data gathered to date. To have such a tribe far to the south in SW Arabia, however, is consistent, especially since the Jews there are earlier mentioned as the tribe of Ephraim. So this is what I have assumed.
	1525	1	Adler, p. 251, 292-293 (David Reubeni, 1525) Note : Various websites put Reubeni's birth in central Arabia, but a 10-day hill journey and a claim of an independent Jewish armed force puts "Habor" in the SW Arabian mountains, so that is what I have assumed. The original manuscript of his diary is in the Bodleian Library. Note too that Reubeni's claims of rulership and having troops, though attracting much medieval attention, were highly controversial and never independently validated.
		2	Turks conquer Yemen: Blady, p. 22.
	1575	1	Birnbaum, "1580".
		2	Jewish Virtual Library, "Yemen", Blady pp. 22-23.